12/15/2023 0 Comments Define conspireThe term did not yet signify a way of thinking about society, but rather functioned as a description of specific individual cases. For example, variations of the term, such as “conspiracy theories” in the plural and “conspiracy theorist”, did not appear in print until much later. Initially, it was not a fully developed analytical concept, however. The first known use of the term in English-language newspapers is in the mid-1800s. Serious scholarly interest in conspiracy theories began in the post-war period with notable contributions including Popper’s The Open Society and its Enemies (1945) and Hofstadter’s The Paranoid Style in American Politics (1964). In practice, this entails a worldview based on unconventional sources and a widespread skepticism or contempt toward those who espouse the official narrative. The media and academia are often considered to be part of the conspiracy. Data from conventional sources are rejected for the same reason. All counterevidence or lack of evidence can be seen as results of the secrecy and cover-up. This cover-up involves the fabrication or removal of evidence or influencing those who control the official narrative.īecause of these characteristics, conspiracy theories are particularly difficult to disprove. Third, the group operates in secret and have initiated a cover-up to hide its work. Second, the conspirators manage, because they are particularly powerful, sly, or manipulative, to control the course of events and the official narrative. First, the actions and goals of the group are nefarious, threatening or illegal. ![]() More specifically, conspiracy theories consist of the following three interconnected characteristics. At the broadest level, conspiracy theories are a type of explanation that describes the actions of a group of conspirators as the most important cause of an event, a series of events, or a state of affairs. While the Force acts and the publicity generated by the joint committee temporarily helped put an end to the violence and intimidation, the end of formal Reconstruction in 1877 allowed for a return of largescale disenfranchisement of African Americans.Conspiracy theories are defined in a variety of ways. The Third Force Act, dated April 1871, empowered the president to use the armed forces to combat those who conspired to deny equal protection of the laws and to suspend habeas corpus, if necessary, to enforce the act. The Second Force Act, which became law in February 1871, placed administration of national elections under the control of the federal government and empowered federal judges and United States marshals to supervise local polling places. While these committees were investigating southern attempts to impede Reconstruction, the Senate passed two more Force acts, also known as the Ku Klux Klan acts, designed to enforce the Fourteenth Amendment and the Civil Rights Act of 1866. In the next Congress the Joint Select Committee to Inquire into the Condition of Affairs in the Late Insurrectionary States broadened that mandate. These reports were referred to the Select Committee of the Senate to Investigate the Alleged Outrages in the Southern States, chaired by Senator Henry Wilson of Massachusetts. Grant submitted several War Department reports relating to events in several southern states. After the Senate adopted Morton's resolution, President Ulysses S. Morton, an Indiana Republican, introduced a resolution requesting the president to communicate any information he had about certain incidents of threatened resistance to the execution of the laws of the United States. ![]() Even this legislation did not diminish harassment of black voters in some areas. In its first effort to counteract such use of violence and intimidation, Congress passed the Enforcement Act of May 1870, which prohibited groups of people from banding together "or to go in disguise upon the public highways, or upon the premises of another" with the intention of violating citizens’ constitutional rights. In response, Congress passed a series of Enforcement Acts in 18 (also known as the Force Acts) to end such violence and empower the president to use military force to protect African Americans. Members of the Ku Klux Klan, for example, terrorized black citizens for exercising their right to vote, running for public office, and serving on juries. ![]() ![]() The adoption of the Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth Amendments to the Constitution extended civil and legal protections to former slaves and prohibited states from disenfranchising voters “on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude.” Forces in some states were at work, however, to deny black citizens their legal rights.
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